Zoonotic helminth fauna in freshwater fish: risk assessment and mitigation strategies

Abstract

Fish serve as a vital source of nutrition and livelihood worldwide, yet their role as intermediate or paratenic hosts makes them key vehicles in the transmission of various helminth zoonoses. As fish consumption rises, the potential for helminth parasite transfer to humans increases accordingly. Zoonotic helminths are transmitted through fish, including trematodes, cestodes, nematodes, and acanthocephalans. These parasites represent a persistent and evolving public-health challenge at the interface of aquatic ecology, food systems, and human behaviour. Globalized fish trade, expanding aquaculture, shifting dietary habits toward raw or undercooked fish, rising pollution, and climate-driven changes in parasite ecology are collectively elevating the risk of fish-borne helminth emergence. Together, these factors create conditions that favour both the spread and re-emergence of these infections worldwide. This review consolidates current understanding of the epidemiology, transmission ecology, clinical relevance, and detection of fish-borne zoonotic helminths. It emphasizes the need for an integrated, evidence-based framework to strengthen surveillance and reduce associated risks, as shown in the graphical abstract (Figure 1).